A Perspective on the Study of Chinese Culture and Society
文章来源: 文章作者: 发布时间:2008-11-25 03:06 字体: [ ]  进入论坛
(单词翻译:双击或拖选)

A Perspective on the Study of Chinese Culture and Society
 
David Faure
Institute for Chinese Studies
University of Oxford
 
 
If I have to sum up what I have been studying since I left graduate school in 1975, I would like to say I have been trying to understand the implications of China’s ritual transformation1 in the sixteenth century. I wouldn’t have thought in 1975 that this was what I was embarking2 on. It came by accident, but, in hindsight, a strand3 of thought of sorts linked the accidents one to another. That probably is my perspective on the study of Chinese culture and society.
 
John Lagerwey wrote in his notes about paradigm4 change. The paradigms5 which gave way for me were the 1960s class theory of Chinese society (peasant, landlord, etc.), and the theory of social control as propounded6 by Hsiao Kung-chuan, which really derived7 from the political theories of the late Qing. I went into graduate school as Freedman and Skinner reminded us that Chinese society existed independently of official control, and that its structure was not necessarily class-based. I made my first foray into the village world by studying the Nian bands in the Shandong-Henan-Jiangsu border area and the Triads in Guangdong, but it was in the New Territories of Hong Kong that I had to confront Freedman and make my own discovery of the importance of religion as the means whereby social relationships might be established, among which was the lineage. Up in the Pearl River delta8, I had to work out how the lineage as a social institution came to be accepted from the sixteenth century and how it was popularised in the centuries to follow so that by the nineteenth century, pseudo-lineages (such as the Triads) could make sense to contemporaries. In the process, I came to realise the centrality of ritual in the integration9 of local society into the state. All this is going into the book I am now completing, enriched by observations outside the Pearl River delta, thanks to a CCK research grant.

Putting ritual in central position in state-local society relationships represents for me a second paradigm shift. Although the centrality of rituals answers Freedman’s question about the role of the lineage in a strong state such as found in imperial China, it urges us to go beyond the geographic11 and economic in generalising about Chinese society. However, the economy comes into the argument in a roundabout way. It was Freedman who observed that lineages were corporate12 groups, founded upon the holding of landed properties, and the corporation of the lineage is exactly the sort of state-local society relationships which came out of the ritual transformation of the sixteenth century. Yet, we have to go beyond Freedman if we are to recognise this to be of arch importance in any understanding of China’s economic history. To come to a realisation of how important the history of incorporation13 must have been to China’s economic development, it is necessary to posit10 Karl Polanyi’s famous remarks about the state and the market: markets operate freely when kings let go of their prerogatives14 to trade. In Europe, kings achieved this by granting charters, first individually, then en masse via company law. In imperial China, there was no company law, corporations were defined through ritual.
 
The territorial15 links of lineage taken away, ritual, therefore, points the way to an interpretation16 of China’s commercial revolution in the sixteenth century. Again, John Lagerwey has pointed17 out the importance of comparison across society, and for me, the comparison with Europe at this point is vital. Both went through a commercial revolution, at about the same time, but out of it Europe built its law on individualism while China followed its rituals by building many of them around the lineage. The magistrate’s court did not rule simply by law; the law he maintained was the law of a ritual-legal order (re Shiga Chuso). The introduction of company law into China, is therefore, for me, the fascinating history of the conversion18 of the ritual-legal order to a different sort of law. I think I can fairly say that only by understanding how religion operates can I understand the ritual-legal basis of business, and only if I can understand that can I detect the markers in China’s modernisation (I won’t quibble about the use of the word). That, of course, takes me into contemporary China. We historians have seen the process of Chinese society opening up three times, the first time in the sixteenth century, the second time from 1870s to probably the 1930s, and the third time from 1979.

So, I am saying our interest in ritual, in law, in Chinese society and economy, and no doubt in politics (if only I knew more about how the Ming, Qing and Republican states operated) are all rolled into one in the sixteenth century ritual transformation. For a research programme, I’d like to see it extended both ways, both into the Southern Song and towards contemporary China. In these broad terms, ritual is not restricted to the practices of the lineage or the local temples, and must be defined to include institutionalised religious orders such as Buddhist19 sects20 and their monasteries21. I realise in saying this we may be rehashing the Confucianisation of Chinese society thesis. Perhaps not quite, in the local context, we shall probably find that Confucianism does not conform to any mode but, as rituals, it grants legitimacy22 to institutions which take different forms.
 
More specifically, I think we need two broadly different sorts of research. First, the lead from the general theme of the integration of local society into the Chinese state moves rapidly into intellectual archaeology23. I expect the Pearl River delta to look different from Putian, or central Shanxi, or Yunnan and Guizhou, because they were integrated into the state at different times when different theories were employed. In the case of Yunnan, I half suspect (I say this because I have not studied it) the difference comes also from the fact that many parts integrated not only into the Han state, but also into the southwestern states of Nanchao or Dali. There is a history in how different parts of China gelled which has to be written if we are to understand how China became China. A corollary of this approach is that the more we know about other parts of China, the more the centrality of Jiangnan fades away.
 
In short, we need local history in a context that goes beyond the locality as a unit in itself.* In this spirit, we have to collect and document, and there is a very broad range of questions which must be considered dealing24 with how graduate students might be inducted and how local scholars might be included in the intellectual exercise. Needless to say, there is a great deal of urgency in the collecting of local documents and the documentation of architecture and local practices. Yet, I think it is important to consolidate25, that is to say, to compare notes across local areas, and to see how practices might relate to broader changes. In this context, a better understanding of historical geography seems imperative26.

Second, given the central place of ritual, I don’t think we should ignore the obvious changes in the twentieth century, that is, the erosion of this ritual with the passing of dynastic China and the rise of the Republican nation state. (I say this because I think much as the Qing was an empire, the Ming behaved in many ways like a nation state. This is another area where comparative work with Europe would be quite interesting.) Part of the flow of this argument may be found in Henrietta Harrison and John Fitzgerald, but I think it can be taken very much further. I don’t underrate the importance of ritual continuation in the villages (how else have many of us been able to get hold of documentation), but we have to recognise that in twentieth-century China, a city-based ideology27 and imported social theory took over the lineage- or village-based state-local society ritual of the imperial state. I don’t want to wander too far on this line of thought, but the point I want to make in the context of this paper is that much as many of us are interested in rituals which have survived in the villages, it would be irresponsible of us as scholars not also to keep an eye out for the institutions which have arisen in China’s cities throughout the twentieth century and to appreciate how with those institutions, it was the city and not the village which now legitimizes varied28 practices.
 
While I would like to see, therefore, a continuation of the ethnographic documentation and gathering29 of sources (land deeds, religious texts, stele30 inscriptions) all over China, I think it is important also to balance that with some appreciation31 of changes in Chinese culture and society based in the twentieth-century cities. Shanghai comes to mind, but not only Shanghai. Quite the contrary, because Shanghai taught us to see China through Shanghai’s lenses, research in other cities is needed to dislodge this uni-centre approach to Chinese history which so much duplicates the Jiangnan-centred view characteristic of late imperial history.

The world wants us to see China in a global context. Maybe we shall be more ready to do that when we have understood a little more of how China has hung together in the past.



点击收听单词发音收听单词发音  

1 transformation SnFwO     
n.变化;改造;转变
参考例句:
  • Going to college brought about a dramatic transformation in her outlook.上大学使她的观念发生了巨大的变化。
  • He was struggling to make the transformation from single man to responsible husband.他正在努力使自己由单身汉变为可靠的丈夫。
2 embarking 7f8892f8b0a1076133045fdfbf3b8512     
乘船( embark的现在分词 ); 装载; 从事
参考例句:
  • He's embarking on a new career as a writer. 他即将开始新的职业生涯——当一名作家。
  • The campaign on which were embarking was backed up by such intricate and detailed maintenance arrangemets. 我们实施的战争,须要如此复杂及详细的维护准备。
3 strand 7GAzH     
vt.使(船)搁浅,使(某人)困于(某地)
参考例句:
  • She tucked a loose strand of hair behind her ears.她把一缕散发夹到了耳后。
  • The climbers had been stranded by a storm.登山者被暴风雨困住了。
4 paradigm c48zJ     
n.例子,模范,词形变化表
参考例句:
  • He had become the paradigm of the successful man. 他已经成为成功人士的典范。
  • Moreover,the results of this research can be the new learning paradigm for digital design studios.除此之外,本研究的研究成果也可以为数位设计课程建立一个新的学习范例。
5 paradigms 07d45d08daccd0678b35de9922b5c9a5     
n.(一词的)词形变化表( paradigm的名词复数 );范例;样式;模范
参考例句:
  • Evolution of 3 paradigms in modern karst study is reviewed. 回顾了近代岩溶学三种“范式”的更替历史。 来自互联网
  • LMT provides 8 types of Learning-Map and the paradigms of each type. 学习导图技术提出了八种类型的学习导图,并分别给出图形范例加以说明。 来自互联网
6 propounded 3fbf8014080aca42e6c965ec77e23826     
v.提出(问题、计划等)供考虑[讨论],提议( propound的过去式和过去分词 )
参考例句:
  • the theory of natural selection, first propounded by Charles Darwin 查尔斯?达尔文首先提出的物竞天择理论
  • Indeed it was first propounded by the ubiquitous Thomas Young. 实际上,它是由尽人皆知的杨氏首先提出来的。 来自辞典例句
7 derived 6cddb7353e699051a384686b6b3ff1e2     
vi.起源;由来;衍生;导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 );(从…中)得到获得;源于;(从…中)提取
参考例句:
  • Many English words are derived from Latin and Greek. 英语很多词源出于拉丁文和希腊文。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • He derived his enthusiasm for literature from his father. 他对文学的爱好是受他父亲的影响。 来自《简明英汉词典》
8 delta gxvxZ     
n.(流的)角洲
参考例句:
  • He has been to the delta of the Nile.他曾去过尼罗河三角洲。
  • The Nile divides at its mouth and forms a delta.尼罗河在河口分岔,形成了一个三角洲。
9 integration G5Pxk     
n.一体化,联合,结合
参考例句:
  • We are working to bring about closer political integration in the EU.我们正在努力实现欧盟內部更加紧密的政治一体化。
  • This was the greatest event in the annals of European integration.这是欧洲统一史上最重大的事件。
10 posit nPHxx     
v.假定,认为
参考例句:
  • If she needs salvation,she will posit a savior.如果她需要救助,她就会设想一个救助者。
  • Other historians posit that she died of old age around 550 BC.别的史学家则认为她一直活到公元前550年左右才寿终正寝。
11 geographic tgsxb     
adj.地理学的,地理的
参考例句:
  • The city's success owes much to its geographic position. 这座城市的成功很大程度上归功于它的地理位置。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • Environmental problems pay no heed to these geographic lines. 环境问题并不理会这些地理界限。 来自英汉非文学 - 环境法 - 环境法
12 corporate 7olzl     
adj.共同的,全体的;公司的,企业的
参考例句:
  • This is our corporate responsibility.这是我们共同的责任。
  • His corporate's life will be as short as a rabbit's tail.他的公司的寿命是兔子尾巴长不了。
13 incorporation bq7z8F     
n.设立,合并,法人组织
参考例句:
  • The incorporation of air bubbles in the glass spoiled it.玻璃含有气泡,使它质量降低。
  • The company will be retooled after the incorporation.合并之后的公司要进行重组。
14 prerogatives e2f058787466d6bb48040c6f4321ae53     
n.权利( prerogative的名词复数 );特权;大主教法庭;总督委任组成的法庭
参考例句:
  • The tsar protected his personal prerogatives. 沙皇维护了自己的私人特权。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • Congressmen may be reluctant to vote for legislation that infringes the traditional prerogatives of the states. 美国国会议员可能不情愿投票拥护侵犯各州传统特权的立法。 来自英汉非文学 - 环境法 - 环境法
15 territorial LImz4     
adj.领土的,领地的
参考例句:
  • The country is fighting to preserve its territorial integrity.该国在为保持领土的完整而进行斗争。
  • They were not allowed to fish in our territorial waters.不允许他们在我国领海捕鱼。
16 interpretation P5jxQ     
n.解释,说明,描述;艺术处理
参考例句:
  • His statement admits of one interpretation only.他的话只有一种解释。
  • Analysis and interpretation is a very personal thing.分析与说明是个很主观的事情。
17 pointed Il8zB4     
adj.尖的,直截了当的
参考例句:
  • He gave me a very sharp pointed pencil.他给我一支削得非常尖的铅笔。
  • She wished to show Mrs.John Dashwood by this pointed invitation to her brother.她想通过对达茨伍德夫人提出直截了当的邀请向她的哥哥表示出来。
18 conversion UZPyI     
n.转化,转换,转变
参考例句:
  • He underwent quite a conversion.他彻底变了。
  • Waste conversion is a part of the production process.废物处理是生产过程的一个组成部分。
19 Buddhist USLy6     
adj./n.佛教的,佛教徒
参考例句:
  • The old lady fell down in adoration before Buddhist images.那老太太在佛像面前顶礼膜拜。
  • In the eye of the Buddhist,every worldly affair is vain.在佛教徒的眼里,人世上一切事情都是空的。
20 sects a3161a77f8f90b4820a636c283bfe4bf     
n.宗派,教派( sect的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • Members of these sects are ruthlessly persecuted and suppressed. 这些教派的成员遭到了残酷的迫害和镇压。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • He had subdued the religious sects, cleaned up Saigon. 他压服了宗教派别,刷新了西贡的面貌。 来自辞典例句
21 monasteries f7910d943cc815a4a0081668ac2119b2     
修道院( monastery的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • In ancient China, there were lots of monasteries. 在古时候,中国有许多寺院。
  • The Negev became a religious center with many monasteries and churches. 内格夫成为许多庙宇和教堂的宗教中心。
22 legitimacy q9tzJ     
n.合法,正当
参考例句:
  • The newspaper was directly challenging the government's legitimacy.报纸直接质疑政府的合法性。
  • Managing from the top down,we operate with full legitimacy.我们进行由上而下的管理有充分的合法性。
23 archaeology 0v2zi     
n.考古学
参考例句:
  • She teaches archaeology at the university.她在大学里教考古学。
  • He displayed interest in archaeology.他对考古学有兴趣。
24 dealing NvjzWP     
n.经商方法,待人态度
参考例句:
  • This store has an excellent reputation for fair dealing.该商店因买卖公道而享有极高的声誉。
  • His fair dealing earned our confidence.他的诚实的行为获得我们的信任。
25 consolidate XYkyV     
v.使加固,使加强;(把...)联为一体,合并
参考例句:
  • The two banks will consolidate in July next year. 这两家银行明年7月将合并。
  • The government hoped to consolidate ten states to form three new ones.政府希望把十个州合并成三个新的州。
26 imperative BcdzC     
n.命令,需要;规则;祈使语气;adj.强制的;紧急的
参考例句:
  • He always speaks in an imperative tone of voice.他老是用命令的口吻讲话。
  • The events of the past few days make it imperative for her to act.过去这几天发生的事迫使她不得不立即行动。
27 ideology Scfzg     
n.意识形态,(政治或社会的)思想意识
参考例句:
  • The ideology has great influence in the world.这种思想体系在世界上有很大的影响。
  • The ideal is to strike a medium between ideology and inspiration.我的理想是在意识思想和灵感鼓动之间找到一个折衷。
28 varied giIw9     
adj.多样的,多变化的
参考例句:
  • The forms of art are many and varied.艺术的形式是多种多样的。
  • The hotel has a varied programme of nightly entertainment.宾馆有各种晚间娱乐活动。
29 gathering ChmxZ     
n.集会,聚会,聚集
参考例句:
  • He called on Mr. White to speak at the gathering.他请怀特先生在集会上讲话。
  • He is on the wing gathering material for his novels.他正忙于为他的小说收集资料。
30 stele euBw1     
n.石碑,石柱
参考例句:
  • Many temples on the mountain,stele,Qulang Pavilion,shade trees.山上殿宇林立,碑碣夹道,亭阁曲廊,绿树掩映。
  • The inscription on the stele tells the history of Lamaism.碑文讲的是喇嘛教史。
31 appreciation Pv9zs     
n.评价;欣赏;感谢;领会,理解;价格上涨
参考例句:
  • I would like to express my appreciation and thanks to you all.我想对你们所有人表达我的感激和谢意。
  • I'll be sending them a donation in appreciation of their help.我将送给他们一笔捐款以感谢他们的帮助。
TAG标签:
发表评论
请自觉遵守互联网相关的政策法规,严禁发布色情、暴力、反动的言论。
评价:
表情:
验证码:点击我更换图片