The Influence of Chinese Culture on Buddhism
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The Influence of Chinese Culture on Buddhism1
 
Buddhism was originally developed in India and brought to China over the Silk Road, and later to some extent through Southeast Asia around the first century A.D. This was during a time when the then reigning2 Han dynasty was in a state of chaos3 and Confucianism was being discredited4 by some intellectuals. The Chinese people therefore came to identify Confucianism with the failing dynasty, and sought a new ideology5 to take place of stale Confucian thinking. The exact date of the coming of Buddhism to China is unknown, but by 64 A.D. Buddhist6 monks7 had introduced written scripture8 into China.
 
At first Buddhism was not popular in China. Interest took several centuries to grow because of Buddhism's incongruities9 with Chinese thought, as well as translation problems (Sanskrit to Chinese). Because Buddhism first entered through China's trading routes with Central Asia, it was seen as the religion of foreign merchants. Consequently, Large scale translation of Buddhist texts did not truly get under way until the 6th to 8th centuries A.D. This resulted in the wider distribution of Buddhism being delayed several centuries.
 
Buddhism was difficult for the Chinese to accept because it was "mysterious and hard to understand. Not straight-forward like Confucian teachings, more like the ambiguity10 of Taoism" (Jin 1), also. it was foreign. Moreover, Buddhism did not focus on problems of state as Confucianism did, and because the study of Confucianism was required material for the exams of public office, practical males preferred its study to that of Buddhism. Moreover, the Buddhist stress on personal fulfillment ("even the Buddha11 left his family to search for revelation" (Jin 1)) seemed counterintuitive to the Chinese values of family and ancestor worship.
 
As the religion became more widespread the Chinese people began to adapt distinctly Chinese forms of Buddhism. There were three major types of Chinese Buddhism. The first was "Pure Land" Buddhism and it was started by Hui Yuan; this type of Buddhism focused on devotion to the Amitabha Buddha in the belief that after death they would be born again in Western Paradise (Pure Land). In this religion worship of the Bodhisattva Guan-Yin was also very important (Jin). Chan or Zen Buddhism was founded by Hui-neng. It was hostile toward all scripture and dogma. The Zen Buddhists12 meditated13 on illogical riddles14 in order to gain enlightenment (Jin). Chih-I founded Tien Tai Buddhism whose primary emphasis was placed on the recitation and study of the Lotus Sutra (Jin).

To thrive in China, Buddhism had to be transformed into a system that could exist within the Chinese way of life. Thus,
 
obscure Indian sutras that advocated filial piety15 became core texts in China. Buddhism was made compatible with ancestor worship and participation16 in China's hierarchical system. Works were written arguing that the salvation17 of an individual was a benefit to that individual's society and family, and monks thus contributed to the greater good. (Wikipedia, Buddhism in China)
 
Popular Chinese Buddhism therefore, was fairly removed from the ideals that came from India. The basic ideas of karmic retribution, samsara, and nirvana came through intact, but in order to make Buddhism more palatable18 to the Chinese, it had to be adapted to their preexisting beliefs such as those previously19 mentioned. The portrayal20 of the netherworld in popular Chinese Buddhism highlights these changes in several ways. The Chinese not only translated Buddhist texts, but also began to directly associate the Buddhist ideas of the netherworld with those conceptions already popular in China.
 
To begin, the (pre-Buddhist) Chinese believed in "the [Taoist] concept of a world of the dead usually thought to be located beneath Mt. Tai in Shantung" (Gjertson #1, 118). However, according to Professor Gjertson, the idea of hell as a location for punishment was due to the influence of Buddhism, and was not see in literature until the 6th century, where it is seen in Taoist scriptures22. Also in popular Chinese Buddhist works the hells take on the anatomy23 of the then current bureaucratic24 and physical structures of China. Or, as Gjertson in his article entitled "Popular Buddhism and Karmic Retribution" describes, "The nether21 world, at least superficially, was conceived as a construct physically25 and bureaucratically26 similar to the world of the living" (Gjertson 134).
 
Often, someone's death was likened to a live person being called to serve an office. For example in the story of Tuan Tzu-ching in which one of two inseparable friends, Liang, dies suddenly and when he arrives in the ghost realm he discovers that the position of Chief Clerk (a very prestigious27 position) has become available. Liang immediately suggests his (living) friend Tuan for the position. King Yama, the king of the dead, then looked at Tuan's record and discovered that Tuan was not scheduled to die until he was ninety-seven, and he was then just thirty-two so he allowed Liang to visit his friend and invite him to take this office in the netherworld. Tuan agrees, and three days later he dies in order to take up his new position as Chief Clerk in the netherworld. This story shows a person literally28 dying in order to gain a bureaucratic appointment.#p#分页标题#e#

Mentioned in Tale Number 19, "Sui Jen-ch'ien", is a description of the physical similarities between the netherworld and the world of the living. A ghost explains to a man that he serves as administrator29 of Lin-hu. The man, inquires of the whereabouts of the area and the name of its king and is told, "The state of Lin-hu comprises everything northwest of the Yellow River... The capital is northwest of Lou-fan, in the desert. The King used to be King Wu-ling of the Chao, but he now controls this country. Everything is under the administration of Mt. Tai and every month the highest ministers are sent there to attend court" (Gjertson #3, 196). Directly referenced here are specific locations in the netherworld which seem to correspond to the living world. The ghost says, "the King used to be King Wu-ling of the Chao, but he now controls this country," this must mean that King Wu-ling controls the corollary land, metaphorically30 "under" that of the living country to which it seems they refer.
 
The idea of karma, that a person would be judged by their actions, whether they be morally right or wrong is and idea obviously intrinsic to the Buddhist faith; the belief
 
"[t]hat the acts were judged, and the appropriate retribution assigned, in a nether-world court administered by an extensive staff of officials and their assistants is, however, a feature uniquely Chinese" (Gjertson #1, 143). In a tale taken from Tang Lin's Ming-pao chi for example, a man if brought before a judge of the underworld and accused of cooking six eggs as well as killing31 two ducks and two oxen, for this, the judge decides, he should be punished. The man protests, crying out loudly, "This office is being grossly unjust!" (Gjertson #2, 301) The man explains that they have not heard his good deeds, and since the judicial32 system is indeed a fair one, they are heard, but still his evil deeds outweigh33 his good, and he is sentenced. This clearly exemplifies the idea of a Chinese judicial system governing the popular Chinese Buddhist workings of karma.

In conclusion, the Buddhist religion has proved that it can accommodate in many ways, the Chinese people. Upon its arrival in China it satisfied a need of the people for a new religion under which to unite at the tragic34 fall of an empire. During this turbulent period in China, two major developments took place in Buddhism. One group consisting mostly of the sophisticated gentry35 dwelled on the philosophical36 and mystical aspects of Buddhism, while the other group dominated by rural farmers followed Buddhism in their own superstitious37 and simple ways imparting to it in the process a peculiar38 Chinese character. Buddhism stretched even more to allow for translation using Taoist terminology39 because the Chinese language did not possess a conceptual apparatus40 adequate for the abstract thought of Buddhism. The use of these familiar Taoist concepts contributed significantly to the spread of Buddhism in China. Buddhist teaching were changed in many ways to accommodate traditional Chinese sensibilities, but the religion changed China as well, leaving in its wake years of rich culture and traditional Buddhist writings that no longer exist in their original Indian form.
 
Works Cited
 
(#1) Gjertson, Donald. Popular Buddhism and Karmic Retribution. Also "Sui Jen-ch'ien", K'ung K'o", and "Chang Fa-i". From Miraculous41 Retribution: A Study and Translation of T'ang Lin's Ming-pao chi, Berkeley: University of California Berkeley, Berkeley Buddhist Study Series Volume 8, 1989.
 
(#2) Gjertson, Donald. "The Early Chinese Buddhist Miracle Tale: A Preliminary Survey," in The Journal of the American Oriental Society 101.3, 1981.
 
Jin, Shunde. Buddhism In China. (handout for Chinese 231 Traditional Chinese Culture, Ohio State University, 1998). http://www.cohums.ohio-state.edu/deall/jin.3/c231/handouts/h10.htm
 
Wikipedia. Buddhism in China. Local Interpretation42 of Indian Texts. Updated: 3/31/2004. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_China#Relation_to_Confucianism_and_Daoism

 



点击收听单词发音收听单词发音  

1 Buddhism 8SZy6     
n.佛教(教义)
参考例句:
  • Buddhism was introduced into China about 67 AD.佛教是在公元67年左右传入中国的。
  • Many people willingly converted to Buddhism.很多人情愿皈依佛教。
2 reigning nkLzRp     
adj.统治的,起支配作用的
参考例句:
  • The sky was dark, stars were twinkling high above, night was reigning, and everything was sunk in silken silence. 天很黑,星很繁,夜阑人静。
  • Led by Huang Chao, they brought down the reigning house after 300 years' rule. 在黄巢的带领下,他们推翻了统治了三百年的王朝。
3 chaos 7bZyz     
n.混乱,无秩序
参考例句:
  • After the failure of electricity supply the city was in chaos.停电后,城市一片混乱。
  • The typhoon left chaos behind it.台风后一片混乱。
4 discredited 94ada058d09abc9d4a3f8a5e1089019f     
不足信的,不名誉的
参考例句:
  • The reactionary authorities are between two fires and have been discredited. 反动当局弄得进退维谷,不得人心。
  • Her honour was discredited in the newspapers. 她的名声被报纸败坏了。
5 ideology Scfzg     
n.意识形态,(政治或社会的)思想意识
参考例句:
  • The ideology has great influence in the world.这种思想体系在世界上有很大的影响。
  • The ideal is to strike a medium between ideology and inspiration.我的理想是在意识思想和灵感鼓动之间找到一个折衷。
6 Buddhist USLy6     
adj./n.佛教的,佛教徒
参考例句:
  • The old lady fell down in adoration before Buddhist images.那老太太在佛像面前顶礼膜拜。
  • In the eye of the Buddhist,every worldly affair is vain.在佛教徒的眼里,人世上一切事情都是空的。
7 monks 218362e2c5f963a82756748713baf661     
n.修道士,僧侣( monk的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • The monks lived a very ascetic life. 僧侣过着很清苦的生活。
  • He had been trained rigorously by the monks. 他接受过修道士的严格训练。 来自《简明英汉词典》
8 scripture WZUx4     
n.经文,圣书,手稿;Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》,《圣经》中的一段
参考例句:
  • The scripture states that God did not want us to be alone.圣经指出上帝并不是想让我们独身一人生活。
  • They invoked Hindu scripture to justify their position.他们援引印度教的经文为他们的立场辩护。
9 incongruities 5cac41942df6f73fa8cd41170bf1898b     
n.不协调( incongruity的名词复数 );不一致;不适合;不协调的东西
参考例句:
  • The maid's vigilance had always spared her the sight of such incongruities. 女仆一向非常小心,不让她看到这种使她不快的景象。 来自辞典例句
  • Western humour was bound to reflect these incongruities. 西部幽默当然会反映这些滑稽可笑的东西。 来自辞典例句
10 ambiguity 9xWzT     
n.模棱两可;意义不明确
参考例句:
  • The telegram was misunderstood because of its ambiguity.由于电文意义不明确而造成了误解。
  • Her answer was above all ambiguity.她的回答毫不含糊。
11 Buddha 9x1z0O     
n.佛;佛像;佛陀
参考例句:
  • Several women knelt down before the statue of Buddha and prayed.几个妇女跪在佛像前祈祷。
  • He has kept the figure of Buddha for luck.为了图吉利他一直保存着这尊佛像。
12 Buddhists 5f3c74ef01ae0fe3724e91f586462b77     
n.佛教徒( Buddhist的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • The Jesuits in a phase of ascendancy, persecuted and insulted the Buddhists with great acrimony. 处于地位上升阶段的耶稣会修士迫害佛教徒,用尖刻的语言辱骂他们。 来自英汉非文学 - 历史
  • The return of Saivite rule to central Java had brought no antagonism between Buddhists and Hindus. 湿婆教在中爪哇恢复统治后,并没有导致佛教徒与印度教徒之间的对立。 来自辞典例句
13 meditated b9ec4fbda181d662ff4d16ad25198422     
深思,沉思,冥想( meditate的过去式和过去分词 ); 内心策划,考虑
参考例句:
  • He meditated for two days before giving his answer. 他在作出答复之前考虑了两天。
  • She meditated for 2 days before giving her answer. 她考虑了两天才答复。
14 riddles 77f3ceed32609b0d80430e545f553e31     
n.谜(语)( riddle的名词复数 );猜不透的难题,难解之谜
参考例句:
  • Few riddles collected from oral tradition, however, have all six parts. 但是据收集的情况看,口头流传的谜语很少具有这完整的六部分。 来自英汉非文学 - 民俗
  • But first, you'd better see if you can answer riddles. 但是你首先最好想想你会不会猜谜语。 来自辞典例句
15 piety muuy3     
n.虔诚,虔敬
参考例句:
  • They were drawn to the church not by piety but by curiosity.他们去教堂不是出于虔诚而是出于好奇。
  • Experience makes us see an enormous difference between piety and goodness.经验使我们看到虔诚与善意之间有着巨大的区别。
16 participation KS9zu     
n.参与,参加,分享
参考例句:
  • Some of the magic tricks called for audience participation.有些魔术要求有观众的参与。
  • The scheme aims to encourage increased participation in sporting activities.这个方案旨在鼓励大众更多地参与体育活动。
17 salvation nC2zC     
n.(尤指基督)救世,超度,拯救,解困
参考例句:
  • Salvation lay in political reform.解救办法在于政治改革。
  • Christians hope and pray for salvation.基督教徒希望并祈祷灵魂得救。
18 palatable 7KNx1     
adj.可口的,美味的;惬意的
参考例句:
  • The truth is not always very palatable.事实真相并非尽如人意。
  • This wine is palatable and not very expensive.这种酒味道不错,价钱也不算贵。
19 previously bkzzzC     
adv.以前,先前(地)
参考例句:
  • The bicycle tyre blew out at a previously damaged point.自行车胎在以前损坏过的地方又爆开了。
  • Let me digress for a moment and explain what had happened previously.让我岔开一会儿,解释原先发生了什么。
20 portrayal IPlxy     
n.饰演;描画
参考例句:
  • His novel is a vivid portrayal of life in a mining community.他的小说生动地描绘了矿区的生活。
  • The portrayal of the characters in the novel is lifelike.该书中的人物写得有血有肉。
21 nether P1pyY     
adj.下部的,下面的;n.阴间;下层社会
参考例句:
  • This terracotta army well represents his ambition yet to be realized in the nether-world.这一批兵马俑很可能代表他死后也要去实现的雄心。
  • He was escorted back to the nether regions of Main Street.他被护送回中央大道南面的地方。
22 scriptures 720536f64aa43a43453b1181a16638ad     
经文,圣典( scripture的名词复数 ); 经典
参考例句:
  • Here the apostle Peter affirms his belief that the Scriptures are 'inspired'. 使徒彼得在此表达了他相信《圣经》是通过默感写成的。
  • You won't find this moral precept in the scriptures. 你在《圣经》中找不到这种道德规范。
23 anatomy Cwgzh     
n.解剖学,解剖;功能,结构,组织
参考例句:
  • He found out a great deal about the anatomy of animals.在动物解剖学方面,他有过许多发现。
  • The hurricane's anatomy was powerful and complex.对飓风的剖析是一项庞大而复杂的工作。
24 bureaucratic OSFyE     
adj.官僚的,繁文缛节的
参考例句:
  • The sweat of labour washed away his bureaucratic airs.劳动的汗水冲掉了他身上的官气。
  • In this company you have to go through complex bureaucratic procedures just to get a new pencil.在这个公司里即使是领一支新铅笔,也必须通过繁琐的手续。
25 physically iNix5     
adj.物质上,体格上,身体上,按自然规律
参考例句:
  • He was out of sorts physically,as well as disordered mentally.他浑身不舒服,心绪也很乱。
  • Every time I think about it I feel physically sick.一想起那件事我就感到极恶心。
26 bureaucratically 7f1a9f2989d6183c032aa4c8bd97f778     
参考例句:
  • Bureaucratically unpopular orders can be evaded in a variety of ways. 官僚主义式的,不孚众望的命令,可以被人们用各种各样的办法来回避。 来自辞典例句
  • His bureaucratically petty behavior annoyed her. 他无聊的官僚作风惹恼了她。 来自互联网
27 prestigious nQ2xn     
adj.有威望的,有声望的,受尊敬的
参考例句:
  • The young man graduated from a prestigious university.这个年轻人毕业于一所名牌大学。
  • You may even join a prestigious magazine as a contributing editor.甚至可能会加入一个知名杂志做编辑。
28 literally 28Wzv     
adv.照字面意义,逐字地;确实
参考例句:
  • He translated the passage literally.他逐字逐句地翻译这段文字。
  • Sometimes she would not sit down till she was literally faint.有时候,她不走到真正要昏厥了,决不肯坐下来。
29 administrator SJeyZ     
n.经营管理者,行政官员
参考例句:
  • The role of administrator absorbed much of Ben's energy.行政职务耗掉本很多精力。
  • He has proved himself capable as administrator.他表现出管理才能。
30 metaphorically metaphorically     
adv. 用比喻地
参考例句:
  • It is context and convention that determine whether a term will be interpreted literally or metaphorically. 对一个词的理解是按字面意思还是隐喻的意思要视乎上下文和习惯。
  • Metaphorically it implied a sort of admirable energy. 从比喻来讲,它含有一种令人赞许的能量的意思。
31 killing kpBziQ     
n.巨额利润;突然赚大钱,发大财
参考例句:
  • Investors are set to make a killing from the sell-off.投资者准备清仓以便大赚一笔。
  • Last week my brother made a killing on Wall Street.上个周我兄弟在华尔街赚了一大笔。
32 judicial c3fxD     
adj.司法的,法庭的,审判的,明断的,公正的
参考例句:
  • He is a man with a judicial mind.他是个公正的人。
  • Tom takes judicial proceedings against his father.汤姆对他的父亲正式提出诉讼。
33 outweigh gJlxO     
vt.比...更重,...更重要
参考例句:
  • The merits of your plan outweigh the defects.你制定的计划其优点胜过缺点。
  • One's merits outweigh one's short-comings.功大于过。
34 tragic inaw2     
adj.悲剧的,悲剧性的,悲惨的
参考例句:
  • The effect of the pollution on the beaches is absolutely tragic.污染海滩后果可悲。
  • Charles was a man doomed to tragic issues.查理是个注定不得善终的人。
35 gentry Ygqxe     
n.绅士阶级,上层阶级
参考例句:
  • Landed income was the true measure of the gentry.来自土地的收入是衡量是否士绅阶层的真正标准。
  • Better be the head of the yeomanry than the tail of the gentry.宁做自由民之首,不居贵族之末。
36 philosophical rN5xh     
adj.哲学家的,哲学上的,达观的
参考例句:
  • The teacher couldn't answer the philosophical problem.老师不能解答这个哲学问题。
  • She is very philosophical about her bad luck.她对自己的不幸看得很开。
37 superstitious BHEzf     
adj.迷信的
参考例句:
  • They aim to deliver the people who are in bondage to superstitious belief.他们的目的在于解脱那些受迷信束缚的人。
  • These superstitious practices should be abolished as soon as possible.这些迷信做法应尽早取消。
38 peculiar cinyo     
adj.古怪的,异常的;特殊的,特有的
参考例句:
  • He walks in a peculiar fashion.他走路的样子很奇特。
  • He looked at me with a very peculiar expression.他用一种很奇怪的表情看着我。
39 terminology spmwD     
n.术语;专有名词
参考例句:
  • He particularly criticized the terminology in the document.他特别批评了文件中使用的术语。
  • The article uses rather specialized musical terminology.这篇文章用了相当专业的音乐术语。
40 apparatus ivTzx     
n.装置,器械;器具,设备
参考例句:
  • The school's audio apparatus includes films and records.学校的视听设备包括放映机和录音机。
  • They had a very refined apparatus.他们有一套非常精良的设备。
41 miraculous DDdxA     
adj.像奇迹一样的,不可思议的
参考例句:
  • The wounded man made a miraculous recovery.伤员奇迹般地痊愈了。
  • They won a miraculous victory over much stronger enemy.他们战胜了远比自己强大的敌人,赢得了非凡的胜利。
42 interpretation P5jxQ     
n.解释,说明,描述;艺术处理
参考例句:
  • His statement admits of one interpretation only.他的话只有一种解释。
  • Analysis and interpretation is a very personal thing.分析与说明是个很主观的事情。
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