19. Sponges attach to the ocean floor, continually filtering seawater for food and ejecting water they have just filtered to avoid reingesting it. Tubular and vase-shaped sponges can eject filtered water without assistance from surrounding ocean currents and thus are adapted to slow-moving, quiet waters. Because of their shape, however, these sponges cannot live in strong currents, since strong currents would dislodge them. Both of these varieties of spong were widespread during the late Jurassic period. 

　　The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following claims? 

　　(A) Few tubular or vase-shaped sponges lived before the late Jurassic period. 

　　(B) Tubular and vase-shaped sponges were more common during the late Jurassic period than in succeeding geological eras. 

　　(D) All sponges that are neither tubular nor vase-shaped inhabit areas of the ocean floor where there are extremely strong currents. 

      (E) No types of sponge liev in large colonies, since sponges do not flourish in areas where much of the water has been filtered by other sponges. 
　
  　20. There is strong evidence that the cause of migraines (severe recurrent headaches) is not psychological but instead is purely¹ physioligical. Yet several studies have found that people being professionally treated for migraines rate higher on a standard psychological scale of anxiety than do people not being professionally treated for migraines. 

　　Which one of the following, if true most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy² in the information above? 

　　(A) People who have migraine headaches tend to have relatives who also have migraine headaches. 

　　(B) People who have migraine headaches often suffer these headaches when under emotional stress. 

　　(C) People who rate higher on the standard psychological scale of anxiety are more likely to seek professional treatment than are people who rate lower on the scale. 

21. Not all tenured faculty⁴ are full professors. Therefore, although every faculty member in the linguistics⁵ department has tenure³, it must be the case that not all of the faculty members in the linguistics department are full professors. 

　　The flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? 

　　(A) Although all modern office towers are climate-controlled buildings, not all office buildings are climate-controlled. Therefore, it must be the case that not all office buildings are modern office towers. 

　　(B) All municipal hospital buildings are massive, but not all municipal hospital buildings are forbidding in appearance. Therefore, massive buildings need not present a forbidding appearance. 

　　(C) Although some buildings designed by famous architects are not well proportioned, all government buildings are designed by famous architects. Therefore, some government buildings are not well proportioned. 

　　(A) whether all planetary systems are formed from similar amounts of matter 

　　(B) whether intelligent species would be likely to survive if a comet struck their planet 

　　(C) whether large comets could be deflected⁶ by only one large planet rather than by two 

　　(D) how high the chances are that planetary systems will contain many large comets 

　　(E) how likely it is that planetary systems containing large planets will also contain planets the size of Earth

　　23. Construction contractors⁸ working on the cutting edge of technology nearly always work on a "cost-plus" basis only. One kind of cost-plus contract stipulates⁹ the contractor⁷’s profit as a fixed¹⁰ percentage of the contractor’s costs; the other kind stipulates a fixed amount of profit over and above costs. Under the first kind of contract, higher costs yield higher profits for the contractor, so this is where one might expect final costs in excess of original cost overruns are actually more common if the contract is of the fixed-profit kind. 

　　Which one of the following,if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox¹¹ in the situation described above? 
　(A) Clients are much less likely to agree to a fixed-profit type of cost-plus 　　contract when it is understood that under certain conditions the project will 　　be scuttled¹² than they are when there is no such understanding. 

　　(B) On long-term contracts, cost projections¹³ take future inflation into account, 　　but since the figures used are provided by the government they are usually 　　underestimates. 

　　(C) On any sizable construction project, the contractor bills the client monthly 　　or quarterly, so any tendency for original cost estimates to be exceeded 　　can be detected early. 

　　(D) Clients billed under a cost-plus contract are free to review individual billings 　　in order to uncover wasteful¹⁴ expenditures¹⁵, but they do so only when the 　　contractor’s profit varies with cost. 

　　(E) The practice of submitting deliberately¹⁶ exaggerated cost estimates is most 　　common in the case of fixed-profit contracts, because it makes the profit, 　　as a percentage of estimated cost, appear modest 

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its logical features to the argumetn above ? 

　　(A) At least one of the players in the orchestra must have made a mistake, 　　since nothing else would have made the conductor grimace¹⁷ in the way she 　　just did. 

　　(B) The first piece must have been the easiest, since it was the only piece in 　　the entire concert in which the orchestra did not make many mistakes. 

　　(C) The players paly well only when they like the music, since they tend to 　　make mistakes when they play something they do not like. 

　　(D) One of the orchestra’s players must be able to play the harp¹⁸, since in one of 　　the pieces they are playing at next week’s concert the composer specified¹⁹ 　　that a harp should be played. 

　　(E) The emotin of the music is the only thing that can have caused the 　　conductor to look so angry just then, since the orchestra was playing 　　perfectly²⁰. 

　　Questions 25-26 

　　Sasha: Handwriting analysis should be banned in court as evidence of a person’s character: handwriting analysts²¹ called as witnesses habitually²² exaggerate the reliability²³ of their analyses. 

　　Gregory: You are right tha the current use of handwriting analysis as evidence is problematic. But this problem exists only because there is no licensing²⁴ board to set professional standards and thus deter²⁵ irresponsible analysts form making exaggerated claims. When such a board is established, however, handwriting analysis by licensed²⁶ practitioners²⁷ will be a legitimate²⁸ courtroom tool for character assessment²⁹. 

　　25. Gregory does which one of the following in responding to Sasha’s argument? 

　　(A) He ignores evidence introduced as support for Sasha’s recommendation. 

　　(B) He defends a principle by restricting the class to which it is to be applied³⁰. 

　　(C) He abstracts a general principle from specific evidence. 

　　(D) He identifies a self-contradictory statement in Sasha’s argument. 

　　(E) He shows that Sasha’s argument itself manifests the undesirable³¹ 　　characteristic that it condemns³². 

26. Which one of the following,if true, would provide Sasha with the strongest counter to Gregory’s response? 

　　(A) Courts routinely use means other than handwriting analysis to provide 　　evidence of a person’s character. 

　　(B) Many people can provide two samples of their handwriting so different that 　　only a highly trained professional could identify themas having been written 　　by the same person.  

　　(C) A licensing board would inevitably³³ refuse to grant licenses³⁴ to some 　　responsible handwriting analysts for resasons having nothing to do with 　　their reliability. 

　　(D) The only handwriting analysts who claim that handwriting provides reliable 　　evidence of a person’s character are irresponsible. 

　　(E) The number of handwriting analysts who could conform to professional 　　standards set by a licensing board is very small

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